From the moment we first enter the world, color aids our understanding and interpretation of everything around us. A fascination with color is seen in young children and infants alike. As we grow older, we may think we understand color, but do we really? What is color, exactly? What distinguishes one color from another?
Here we will begin to explore the world of color theory. Where and when does color theory originate? How were distinct colors devised and defined? Who are the leaders in color experimentation and theorizing today? In truth, we could discuss these topics at great length, just as numerous color experts have already done. However, we hope to simply introduce the basic tenets of color theory to art enthusiasts, prospective fine art, and design students, as well as those who are simply curious about color.
Origins of Color Theory
Color theory is a set of principles used to create harmonious color combinations. The theory can be represented visually through the use of the color wheel, which organizes the entire color spectrum into a circle to illustrate the various relationships between primary, secondary, and complementary colors.
Often, artists use the primary colors of red, yellow, and blue (RYB color model) to express color theory. In the model, these three colors are equally spaced at points around the color wheel. Their arrangement corresponds to the wavelengths of light, as opposed to hues; the first color wheel, devised by Sir Isaac Newton in Opticks (1704), was modeled after this principle. While early fundamentals of the theory were found in the writings of Leone Battista Alberti circa 1435 and the notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci circa 1490, the tradition of “color theory” did not truly begin until Newton began his work in the early 18th century.
These early color theorists considered the RYB model to be indicative of fundamental sensory qualities that contribute to all physical colors and blend equally in the physical mixture of pigments or dyes. These ideas and many personal color observations were summarized in two of color theory’s founding documents: The Theory of Colours (1810), by German poet and government minister Johann Wolfgang von Goethe; and The Law of Simultaneous Color Contrast (1839), by French industrial chemist Michel Eugéne Chevreul.
Modern Color Theory
Modern color theory can be traced back to The Art of Color, a revolutionary work published by German author Johannes Itten in 1961. Itten’s work incorporated the ideas of artists like Leonardo da Vinci, Titian, and Rembrandt, as well as Newton and Ewal Hering. In developing his theories, Itten drew on his study of Eastern philosophies, the wisdom of Chinese and Hindu thinkers, and his knowledge of art from around the world. Itten’s color wheel and ideas about color harmony are based on science and the mechanics of human vision.
Itten helped demonstrate the phenomena of “successive contrast,” which happens when the brain creates an afterimage of a color when we look at it for an extended period of time. For example, red is an afterimage of green. Itten came to realize that the afterimage was always the colors exact complement on the color wheel, thus, he recognized that our brains are programmed to find color equilibrium and recognize harmonies.
Terms of Color Theory
While color theory analyzes the relationships of pure colors, it does not take color lightness and saturation into account. Instead, color theory focuses on the hue component of a given color. Color theory dictates that harmonious color combinations use any two colors opposite each other on the color wheel; any three colors equally spaced around the color wheel forming a triangle; and any four colors forming a rectangle (which is essentially two pairs of colors opposite each other).
Harmonious color combinations are called color schemes, and can be broken down into a few key categories. These are as follows:
- Monochromatic: This scheme uses variations in lightness and saturation of a single color. The scheme looks clean and elegant, and many monochromatic colors go well together. The scheme is known for producing a soothing effect, particularly with blue or green hues.
- Analogous: This scheme uses colors that are adjacent to each other on the color wheel. One color is used as a dominant color while others are used to enrich the scheme. Analogous is similar to monochromatic, though it offers more nuance.
- Complementary: Consisting of two colors that are opposite each other on the color wheel. The scheme usually produces the best results when a warm color is placed against a cool color, such as red vs. green-blue. This is always a high-contrast scheme.
- Triadic: This scheme uses three colors, equally spaced around the color wheel. The scheme is commonly used due to the strong visual contrast it offers while retaining harmony and color richness. Not as contrasting as the complementary scheme, triadic offers a more balanced, harmonious aesthetic.
- Tetradic (Double Complementary): By using two complementary sets of pairs, this is the most varied scheme. If all four hues are used in equal amounts, Tetradic is hard to harmonize and can often appear unbalanced. Thus, when the scheme is used, a color is often chosen to serve as the dominant color, subduing the others.
Colors can further be broken down into five main categories. These are as follows:
- Hue: A description of the distinct characteristics of color that distinguish one from the other. Hues are largely dependent on the dominant wavelength of light that is emitted or reflected from an object. From the spectrum, any pure hue can be mixed with white, black, or gray to yield a tone family of colors with different lightness, chroma, and saturation.
- Chromaticity: Highly chromatic colors contain maximum hue with little or no impurities such as white, black, or gray. Often referred to as ‘colorfulness’, chromaticity is the amount of identifiable hue in a color. A good indicator of chromaticity is the degree to which a color is free from being mixed with other colors.
- Saturation: Saturation, or ‘intensity’ of color, describes the strength of a color with respect to its value or lightness. It is the degree to which it is different than gray at a given lightness.
- Value: Also know as ‘brightness’, value of a color is based on the amount of light that emanates from the color. Value can be visualized using the ‘grayscale’, which runs from black to white, containing all possible monochromatic grays. The brighter the color is on the grayscale, the higher its value.
- Luminance: Dimension of color is related to value but is distinct in its mathematical definition. Luminance or lightness of a color measures the intensity of light per unit area of its source. It is calculated by taking the average of a series of achromatic colors. Luminance runs from very dim to very bright, and is best represented by the color wheel, which shows all hues with equal luminance. Adding light to the color wheel would increase the intensity of light, as well as the luminance.
How Color Theory Helps Students and Shapes Careers
The International School of Colour + Design in Sydney, Australia, offers courses specifically designed to launch a career as a color designer. The goal of these courses is to use color theory and design principles to give students the ability to create color schemes for a broad range of projects.
At Parsons The New School for Design, color theory is taught by Kelli Glancey, an illustrator for Hallmark Gift Books and young adult book covers. Glancey aids students in practicing with paint, mixed media, fabric and computer programs to develop color as a tool to communicate and solve visual problems. Students also keep a sketchbook to take notes, develop ideas, practice concepts and collect examples from artists and designers in order to document their progress in and out of the classroom.
Full Sail University, a for-profit university specializing in art and design, offers a course on color theory as part of their Digital Arts & Design Bachelor of Science Degree. In the course, color theory is explored from historical and geographical perspectives. Methods and techniques of the use of color to create impact are also discussed in sections regarding psychology of color, color calibration and applied color theory.
Color Theory and Careers
Whether we’re aware of it or not, color theory dictates our daily life in a myriad of ways, such as how we choose to spend our money, who we find attractive, and even our state of mind. A career in color theory can be fascinating and exciting, but it is also exceedingly competitive. Fine artists who use color theory regularly include painters, sculptors, illustrators, fashion designers, web designers, animators and filmmakers.
As of 2010, the Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that employment of craft and fine artists is projected to grow 5% through 2020, slower than average for all occupations. In 2010, approximately 56,900 U.S. citizens were employed within the field, a number that is expected to increase by around 3,000 over the next decade.
Employment of artists is very much dependent on the overall economy, as painting and design is often viewed as a hobby that is a nonessential part of daily life. As most people have less disposable income, and charitable giving to the arts is expected to wane, job growth will likely be limited within the field. In this market, only the most successful and competitive fine artists will likely be able to make a full time living with their work.
In 2010, the median hourly wage of craft and fine artists was $20.90. However, the lowest 10% earned less than $9.10 and the top 10% earned more than 44.04%. Fine artists, such as sculptors, painters and illustrators could usually command more, while craft artists were often on the low end of the spectrum.
Those interested in the position should cultivate their artistic ability and creativity, of course, but also skills in customer-service, sales and marketing. Making a living in fine arts is expected to become increasingly competitive, so strong physical health, ambition and exceptional talent and skills are all important traits for prospective artists.
Once upon a time, the role of the teacher in the classroom conjured up images and ideas of blackboards, rulers, chalk, and pencils. But now, technology is becoming more and more integrated into modern school systems—not just as an added bonus, but as a necessity to how students learn and how teachers teach. While at one point in time, adopting technology into the classroom may have been perceived as stressful and forced for teachers and students alike, as it stands now, students aren’t just excited about using technology, teachers are excited and highly capable of utilizing its presence in the classroom. From smartboards to class computers to e-readers and e-textbooks, each new technology presents new modes of both teaching and learning opportunities. Now, every day teachers with tech access are finding new ways to embrace technology and incorporate it into the classroom. As a result, teachers are more efficient than ever, and students are capable of learning faster and more efficiently. In fact, a majority of students say that technology has helped them to achieve their academic goals, while a majority of teachers say they would like to use even more technology in the classroom. The following infographic looks into the tech-teaching phenomenon, and why teachers love it so much.
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In a majority of western countries, women have a huge web presence, using it, on average, 17% more than men. In western Europe and most of North America, women tend to use social media more, they tend to shop online more, and most of them simply make up more website traffic than men. But in developing nations, with prohibited freedom, lower literacy rates, and lack of technological knowledge, many women are missing out on the Internet. In developing nations, while both genders tend to have more limited Internet connectivity than those in the west, there are still some very surprising discrepancies in how much more often men are able to access the web. In fact, in some extreme cases, as many as 70% of a nation’s men have accessed the web before, compared to just 14% of women. But when women are able to gain access to the Internet, they begin to do powerful things with it. Among women in developing nations, many of those who have been able to access the web have used it to find work, do research, and otherwise seek an additional income source for their families. The following infographic examines how now, more than ever, women in developing nations need the web.
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No matter what age you are, there’s a very good chance that technology, and particularly Internet use, has permeated your life entirely over the past few years. While most people are engaged in the online world in some way, from social media to email to online shopping and more, not everyone is equally astute at navigating the web space. In fact, when it comes to being tech-savvy, practically no one does it like those who grew up immersed in web culture—namely, teenagers and young adults. Members of the Millennial generation seem to have a singular capability to navigate the World Wide Web without even thinking, but could this talent one day land them in trouble? While young people are deftly capable of navigating the net, they’re not always of entirely sound judgement, nor do they seem to be aware of future repercussions web activity can have. Studies show that more and more universities and employers are turning to the online presence of a prospective student or potential candidate to help determine the credibility of that person. On the other hand, young people still seem shockingly unaware of the damage a picture or post can have. The following infographic examines this dualistic phenomenon: Young people certainly rule the web, but they’re not always as careful with it as they should be.
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To some people, Finland isn’t a whole lot more than a chilly, northern country boasting a population of around 5 million people. Whether you’ve been to Finland or not, you probably haven’t had the chance to take an up-close and personal look at one of Finland’s greatest accomplishments to date—its high-achieving education system. Students in Finland have, over the past several years, risen to the top of the academic food-chain, and they’ve become some of the top scholarly performers in the world. Compared to many other developed nations, including the US and Canada, Finland’s high school graduation rates have continued to grow steadily and impressively. Furthermore, a huge percentage of students continue on to earn college degrees, and students at all levels perform exceedingly well on standardized tests. So what’s Finland’s secret? It’s hard to say for sure, but some good guesses as to the source of their success include respecting their teachers highly, assigning students less homework and more recess time, and keeping standardized testing to a minimum. The following infographic takes an in-depth look at some of the details behind Finland’s educational system, and what makes it work so well.
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Whether you’re away at college, still living at home, or trying to transition between the two, there’s a good chance that you catch dinner with your family every now and again. Sometimes family dinner can be the highlight of the week, and sometimes it can just feel like a huge inconvenience. For people who grew up having dinner with the family on a regular basis, there are sure to be some instances you can recall when family dinner was the least appealing thing in your schedule. Love it or hate it, turns out that regularly eating dinner with your family is a good thing. Studies show that families who eat dinner together on a regular basis tend to produce offspring who are happier, healthier, and oftentimes more successful. The following infographic examines some of the benefits that come with a regularly scheduled family dinner. It turns out, eating dinner together is a recipe for more conversation between family members, stronger ties, and positive communication, among other things. Whether you’re nostalgic for the times you sat around the table with family, or you’re trying to convince yourself to eat dinner with your parents tonight, there’s a lot of good to be had from an old fashioned family dinner.
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The National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) has played a crucial role in providing grants and awards to individuals and groups whose ideas are currently shaping the field of humanities in the United States and abroad. Since 1965, NEH has grown to encompass several key areas of the humanities, including how the internet can be optimally used in the education and study of humanities. Below are several NEH-sponsored apps and projects that even the least web-oriented educators can use to augment their own methods and tools for teaching humanities to their students.
Five of the Greatest NEH-Sponsored Apps and Projects of 2012
- Digital Public Library of America (DPLA): In 2012, the NEH awarded $1 million to the furthering of this remarkable project, which is currently working to digitize and provide free access to the content and archives of the nation’s public libraries. This project is a boon for teachers and students alike who stand to benefit from direct access to books and research materials throughout the United States right from their home or classroom computer. While the DPLA still has some ways to go in digitizing the content of all libraries in the nation, this recent grant from the NEH ensures that this project could seriously become the Library of Alexandria of our age.
- The Steinbeck Institute: For several years now, the NEH has provided grants for teachers and scholars who are looking to further the study and appreciation of author John Steinbeck and his many canonical works of literature. The site hosts several resources and lesson plans created by NEH Steinbeck scholars that can help teachers optimally educate their students on the works of Monterey, California’s most beloved author. This year, the NEH has provided yet another grant to the institute for teachers and scholars who wish to attend a several week seminar during the summer of 2013 for deepening their knowledge of Steinbeck and his classic literary corpus.
- Metadata Games: Prof. Mary Flanagan at Dartmouth College has been doing excellent work over the years in synthesizing online game play with learning about the humanities. This year, the NEH awarded over $300,000 to aid in the expansion of the project, which has currently completed two games to help students learn historical and archival information while having fun at the same time. This most recent grant will help Prof. Flanagan and Dartmouth University to expand the archival content for Metadata Games over the next several months.
- MapScholar: This project, which provides dynamic online visualizations of historic cartography, should be particularly exciting for scholars of the humanities who are intrigued by how our concepts of geographic space and boundaries have fluctuated over time. The NEH has granted the University of Virginia nearly $300,000 to continue work on this outstanding project, which already hosts several maps for teachers and students to view. While the project is mostly aimed towards scholars, the site explains that the project has “a natural extension as an advanced presentation tool as well as for classroom instruction at the K-12 and college level.”
- WordSeer: Developed by humanities scholars at U.C. Berkeley, WordSeer has been awarded an NEH grant in 2012 for its goal to provide an innovative online resource for teachers and students of literature. The project provides tools for finding analytical relationships between words and grammar in digital literary texts and offers great visual aids that range from word trees and heat maps. The project is currently in the process of digitizing three text collections, from the works of William Shakespeare to American slave narratives, and should be available to the general public by early 2013.
The National Endowment for the Humanities is a critical component for furthering the study and teaching of humanities in the 21st century. The generous grants given to individuals and institutions who strive to digitize the world’s books and printed resources ensure that students from every part of the world have access to the educational materials they need. Teachers will especially benefit from these projects, which promise to expand their capabilities for educating students in ways that are interactive, interesting and fun!
Latin has a reputation for being one of the more difficult languages to master. It’s also one of the more rewarding. To study Latin involves learning about ancient Roman culture and grappling with the language’s complex grammatical structure. Latin is an inflected language, meaning that parts of speech such as nouns, adjectives and pronouns change according to their role in a sentence. The five latin cases, or inflected forms, are dative, nominative, accusative, genitive and ablative.
The language was originally used in ancient Rome and Latium. It’s considered a ‘dead language’ today because the spoken form no longer exists. Strangely enough, English is significantly influenced by Latin. Much of science and technology vocabulary is Latin or derived from Latin. We use it in everyday expressions, too; i.e, Latin is everywhere.
Though linguistics students must gain a deeper knowledge of the archaic language than the rest of us, learning Latin can be an valuable endeavor for young students and their parents.
A Mini Latin Lesson
While Old English was, like Latin, rich with inflection, modern English is not. Today’s English speakers exchange meaning with sentences heavily reliant on word order. But some forms of inflection still exist. In fact, it wouldn’t make sense without it. We have, for example, plural and past tense. Also, English pronouns are highly inflective. Here’s an example of how pronoun declensions help us understand meaning: She gave the book to him. We wouldn’t write: Her gave the book to he.
If you gain a decent grasp on Latin, you will better understand modern English. So many of our words are derivatives of Latin or Greek words. With a better understanding on the ins and outs of English grammar, you will pick up Latin-related languages such as French and Italian much easier.
Latin Is Everywhere, Especially the Classroom
Just think about the difference knowing some Latin will make in your daily life and in the classroom. How many times have you heard or used the word “et cetera”, or etc.? Do you know what it means? In English “et” translates to “and,” while “cetera” is the neuter form of ceteri, “the others.” So there you have it, and the others. Ha! Note, this abbreviation is used to describe things, not people.
You may come across the Latin “et. al.” in English class when you learn how to write a works cited page, or bibliography. Et. al. is closely related to “etc.” in meaning. It’s an abbreviation of the masculine “et alii”, meaning “and others.” However, et. al. is used to refer to people too numerous to name, such as multiple authors of a single work cited in a bibliography.
In biology your teacher gives you a pop quiz. In one of the questions you are tasked with defining “homo erectus.” Oh rats! You forgot to study! But never fear, you’re a Latin student. You know from Latin that “homo” means “man,” or “same”. Erectus, of course, is Latin for upright, or alert. So, “homo erectus” must be an upright, or walking man. Today’s men and women walk, so you can safely assume that homo erectus refers to a stage in man’s evolution.
Advantages To Teaching Younger Kids Latin
A 2012 Swedish study reveals that language learning stimulates brain growth in young students’ brains, specifically the hippocampus and three areas in the cerebral cortex. If what they say is true, just imagine the ways in which learning the cryptic language of Latin can bolster young students’ minds.
Not surprisingly, kids with early exposure to Latin’s complex grammar learn foreign languages faster and better. Among other incentives, teaching young students Latin can:
- Increase reading comprehension
- Improve SAT/ACT scores
- Boost grammar skills
Carpe Diem!
If you recognize that exclamation, then it’s time to start learning Latin now! And you can do so without any expensive resources or insurmountable agendas. If you get hooked, resources for further study are endless in number.
A quick search on the Internet will give you lots of material to start studying. To begin with, consider these great online resources:
This site provides free, structured tutorials and activities to guide students as they explore and learn Latin. The material includes information about the language and its development.
LivelyLatin is designed for children grades 3-6. Parents of young children may appreciate this resource as the comprehensive textbook includes everything from English derivatives to Roman history and online games.
For most students, procrastination is a part of completing any homework assignment. And in a world where every sort of technological distraction imaginable is right at your fingertips, procrastination seems to become easier and easier each day. Whatever your favorite form of procrastination may be, from online shopping to gaming to playing around with your smartphone or tablet, you’ve probably gotten pretty good at doing these things when you should be studying or writing a paper. And even for those who are no longer in school, studies show that those who procrastinate from a young age are far more likely to continue to do so in a business environment. It may be true that sometimes, the rush that comes with putting something off till last minute can feel thrilling, but in the long run it causes more stress than anything else. In fact, those who are chronic procrastinators are far more likely than their non-procrastinating counterparts to have unhealthy sleep, diet, and exercise patterns. With the number of people who identify as “chronic procrastinators” on the rise, it may be in your best interests to reconsider whether or not procrastinating on something is really contributing to your overall success.
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Teenage students are not always ready to assimilate abstract ideas like globalization, sustainability or conservation. Really. Part of it is neurological. As explained in an NPR
article, a “crucial part of the [teenage] brain — the frontal lobes — are not fully connected.” But during adolescence, the body and the brain are developing quickly, which makes it an ideal time to foster growth through fun activities.
Student-run clubs offer a collaborative forum in which its members can voluntarily engage in abstract subjects. With some guidance and a concrete subject like geology, your students can come to grips with big ideas in a safe space. As participants of a geological society, students will, believe it or not, take their first steps toward tackling questions and making difficult decisions as soon-to-be adults of the 21st century global community.
Mining for Ideas in a Geological Society
A club organized around a broad topic like geology gives students a chance to discover various related topics like economics, social studies and environmental sciences. Broad topics are also bound to attract diverse students with varying interests and academic strengths.
Depending on the academic level of your students and their interest in participation, you may want to suggest the following geology-related topics, or allow them to do the discovery work.
NASA’s Curiosity rover continues to reveal geological connections between Earth and Mars. It has recently discovered evidence of water in sedimentary rocks, and even in the planet’s volcanic sand, which resembles sand found in Hawaii’s Mauna Kea volcano.
We know that solar flares affect Earth’s weather patterns, which, in turn, change the landscape. Industrial pollution has, and continues to, contribute to global warming.
Global climate change is a hot topic today. Students may be interested in researching alternative energies like biodiesel fuel or carbon sequestration. Climate change is a great catalyst for other topics such as poverty, globalization and industrialization.
They may want to look into hydraulic fracking, a method of extracting natural gas from the ground. Students could analyze the theories that claim fracking causes environmental harm and increases earthquakes. Plate tectonics and seismology may be of special interest to students living near fault lines or to anyone who has lived through an earthquake.
Point out that geology is not just the study of rocks and minerals, land formations and erosion. Throughout history, land has been fought over, exploited for its resources and idealized in art and literature. Students may be interested in looking at local land from a historical perspective. They may be interested in uncovering how the landscape has changed prior to their city’s establishment and revealing how the landscape has changed and why. Still others interested in the arts may want to create art pieces inspired by landscapes or write essays in response to novels in which landscape plays a significant role.
The methods we use to extract resources from the land are intricately linked to economics. Students interested in this subject and/or politics may find interest in researching the factors that create the world’s reliance on crude oil, natural gas, and coal.
Geological Group Projects
1. Visit your town dump, recycling facility, or wastewater treatment center
Before you let your students run wild through the town dump, be sure to frame the trip according to their interests. Students might, for example, want to know which materials biodegrade and which won’t in their lifetime. Ask them to bring notebooks so that they can record their findings. Here are a few ideas for follow-up projects: compile a resource for the school on how to decrease the amount of non-recyclable waste the school produces, document how local biodiversity is affected.
For more information on wastewater treatment facilities, refer to the EPA.
- Trip may be fully funded by the city
- Appropriate for all grade levels
2. Visit a local organic farm
Many farms are happy to have volunteers, even for a few hours. Ask the owners if they are willing to give the students a tour of the farm, explain why it was started, and how it gives back to nature and improves the local environment.
- Trip may be fully funded by the city
- Lunch may be provided
- Appropriate for all grade levels
3. Team up with local university
Contact the geology department at your local university or community college. More likely than not, they have already developed community education resources. If your club is focusing on oil and the economy, for example, you may be able to contact a graduate student in the field who will be be happy to meet with your students, educate them, and propose an appropriate angle for their project.
Just checking the department’s website may provide ideas. The Earth and Space Sciences department at the University of Washington, for example, has developed a global monitor that tracks 1,500 volcanoes worldwide for ash cloud lightning. The findings can be viewed at: World Wide Lightning Location Network.
Furthermore, you may find that a local geology professor or visiting lecturer in the field is giving a lecture, or publishing a book. Keep your students up to date!
- Appropriate for junior high and high school students
- Free
4. Build a compost bin and club garden
This project will take a lot of planning, but you can find valuable resources on the web, through your city and at the local garden store. In fact, your city may offer free training on how to build a proper compost bin. Be sure to contact them as many of these resources are free. You can begin researching for brief overviews on how to make a compost bin.
Students will learn about soil such as gravel, sand, silt and clay. They will have to know what types of soil they’re dealing with depending on the garden site and how compositing can help enrich it. Students gain awareness of the climate, which types of plants will thrive in their region, harvesting times, and countless other lessons.
- An excellent opportunity for all ages
- Cost is variable. Again, be sure to research your options
For more advanced students, the U.S. Geological Society offers educational opportunities, many of which are oriented for college students. However, the website also showcases intern profiles that may inspire students and prepare them for the steps they need to take toward an academic career.
The U.S. Geological Society website, Science Topics, displays a myriad of topics like Hydrologic Processes with links to subtopics like glaciation. This resource is valuable for students and teachers alike.
Likewise, The Geological Society of America provides plentiful information for educators on how to build a geology lesson plan, as well as opportunities for students to participate in projects like the Mars Student Imaging Project (MSIP).
Additional Resources:
- Kids.gov Geology for Teens provides links to valuable websites like the U.S. Geological Society, the Smithsonian, and the U.S. Department of Energy
- National Geographic’s Education Beta website includes fantastic resources for teachers of students Grade 1-12
- BBCs Bitesize Education is a great starting point for educators of students approximately Grades 5-9
- PBS’ NOVA Beta offers multimedia educational experiences on storms, space and geology
Books:
- “Silent Spring” by Rachel Carlson
- “Dirt: The Erosion of Civilizations” by David R. Montgomery
- “Geology in Art” by Andrea Baucon
